This qualitative, grounded theory study draws on the framework of symbolic interactionism to locate and analyze the processes through which educational graduate students create meanings and develop cultural understandings through the teaching pedagogy of service learning at an orphanage located in central Mexico. When utilizing international service learning as a teaching pedagogy, university students restructure and reinforce cultural perceptions through a series of five stages that reflect their internal processing.
 

Introduction
With the ever-increasing diversity within public school classrooms, the need for culturally sensitive public school teachers is growing dramatically.  For each of the last three years, university graduate students in educational leadership, special education, and counseling have traveled to Mexico to provide educational diagnostic testing and play therapy for 32 orphaned girls.  The experience provided reciprocal benefits for both university students and the Mexican orphans and orphanage. University students found new cultural understandings that they could apply to their own classrooms and, the girls received educational services that have assisted the orphanage in developing an academic curriculum that has improved educational attainment.  The cultural impact on university students has been significant, as summarized by a participating student:

 “This has been the experience of a lifetime.  My horizons have been broadened and my mind opened to the changing demographics that we are facing in the United States. . . . service learning has the ability to change cultural perspectives.  I am excited as a teacher and aspiring administrator about the opportunity to integrate this teaching methodology into my campus culture.”   N.R.

Service Learning as Teaching Pedagogy to Inform Cultural Perception
“Service-learning is a teaching and learning strategy that integrates meaningful community service with instruction and reflection to enrich the learning experience, teach civic responsibility, and strengthen communities (National Service-Learning Clearinghouse, 2008).  Very little scientific research has been conducted with regard to the impact of international service learning methods on cultural understanding.  As such, the findings from this research add new layers to the research literature.  There have, however, been some indirect findings.  For example, Anderson (2000) identified the need for university students to participate in multiple and varied service-learning experiences that involve working with diverse community members.  In addition to Anderson, other research studies have indicated promising results for continued examination of this area.  For instance, investigations of the impact of service-learning on issues of diversity and cultural understanding show increased awareness of diversity issues and reduced stereotyping for participants (Beyer, 1991; Boyle-Baise, 1998; McKenna & Ward, 1996; Potthoff, et al., 2000; Root, et al., 2001; Siegel, 1994; Tellez et al., 1994; Vadeboncoueur et al., 1995).  Other studies have found positive changes in attitudes of participants toward multicultural teaching (Boyle-Baise, 1998; McKenna & Ward, 1996; Siegel, 1994).   Furthermore, studies have found that service-learning students are less likely to blame those less fortunate for ‘not trying’ or for creating their own unfortunate circumstances (Boyle-Baise, 1998; Grady, 1998; Siegel, 1994; Tellez et al., 1994; Vadeboncoueur et al.,1995).

In a series of more recent research reports, Borden (2007) in a service learning course in intercultural communication, found that service learning - within the context of diverse cultures - led to lower levels of ethnocentrism.  Similarly, Miller and Fernandez (2000) that students and faculty show “greater interest and willingness to be involved in and face situations of cultural difference and conflict when involved in faculty-led cultural exploration” (for periods of up to 4 weeks during summer months) (p. 58). Using service learning with an immigrant population as part of a teacher education program, Bollin (2007) found that participating students gained cultural understanding, respect, and confidence in their own ability to teach in diverse classrooms. Moreover, Bryan and Sprague (1997) discuss the impact of overseas student teaching internships as positively impacting students ability to obtain a job, remain in the field of education, and increase positive attitudes toward diverse learners and languages.

Methodology

The purpose of this research was to determine if the methodology of service learning could be successfully utilized as a teaching pedagogy for positively impacting cultural perspectives of university students. The theoretical framework and research methodology is discussed below.

Symbolic interaction theory emphasizes the interpretations and meanings that individuals construct in their particular social settings (Blumer, 1969; Mead, 1934).  The individual is seen as a social product who is influenced by others but who also maintains distance from others and is able to initiative individual action (Blumer, 1969, Mead, 1934). This study draws on the framework of symbolic interactionism to locate and analyze the processes through which educational graduate students create meanings and develop cultural understandings through the teaching pedagogy of service learning at an orphanage located in central Mexico. Thus, the aim of data collection from a symbolic interactionist perspective is to collect descriptive data relevant to understanding cultural meanings from students’ perspectives.

Research Site and Participants

     Orphanage

The orphanage is located on the outskirts of San Miguel de Allende, a town in central Mexico.  The orphanage is home to 32 little girls who have been abandoned because of dire family situations.  These are the girls of a nonprofit orphanage run by four Dominican nuns without the financial support of either the church or the government. Upon the first service learning visit in 2005, it was clear that the girls had a physical home, but that home was crumbling through the natural neglect created by lack of funding. It was also obvious that the lack of funding and resources was creating poor health and a forced situation where the children needed to beg in the streets to meet subsistence needs. In addition, the orphanage had little in the way of a daily curriculum for the girls – outside of religious development.  Educationally and socially, the girls were also lacking in skills and knowledge.

     University Students

Research participants include sixty graduate education students from a regional, public university in the Panhandle of Texas.   The majority of the students are educational leadership majors (n = 53).  Five students were special education/diagnostician majors and two were in the education counseling program (34 females and 19 males). A total of 9 student participants were Spanish speakers.  Prior to the project, the university participants had little information about the concept of service learning and had differing perceptions about the Mexican culture – based mainly on experiences with a Mexican immigrant (legal or illegal), a trip to a tourist beach or a border town in Mexico, or interactions of with Mexican students in their school.  Participants also identified having gained knowledge of Mexico based on their attainment of news from media outlets (e.g., newspaper, radio, and television).  

Data Analyses  
Conceptual and descriptive data, discovered within the reflective journals, participant observation fieldnotes, and interviews were coded and analyzed according to the constant comparative method of grounded theory (Corbin  & Strauss, 2008; Glaser, 1978; Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Strauss, 1987).  The grounded theory researcher allows data to be emergent, meaning that data comes into being from the actual research setting through data collection methods.  The four stages of the constant comparative method used during this study include:  locating and comparing incidents (i.e., concrete units of information) in the data, developing categories from the incidents, delimiting the data (i.e., reduction of nonrelevant incidents), and presentation of theoretical findings. “The method is designed to encourage researchers’ persistent interaction with their data, while remaining constantly involved with their emerging analyses” (Bryant & Charmaz, 2007, p. 1).

During the first stage of locating and comparing incidents in the data, the researchers examined the data responses to find the smallest concrete stand-alone units about the research topic.  These were the words or phrases that told what was happening within the research participants.  Once an incident was located, it was coded and, during the second stage of integrating categories and their properties, the researchers grouped the incidents into categories based on the similarities and differences in the incident types.  The researchers then looked for relationships among the categories in order to form a core category around which all other categories might form.  Stage three was the process of reduction, or delimiting the theory, where non relevant incidents were withdrawn from categories and overlapping incidents allowing category sets to combine.  Coding and delimitation ceased when further analysis failed to turn up new incidents or categories.

Through utilizing the constant comparative method of grounded theory, five major categories of the development of cultural understandings through the use of international service learning were discovered.   These categories were used to organize the descriptive data that summarizes the research findings.

Findings
While a variety of approaches have been used to explain the process of cultural perceptual change, our findings seem to connect most closely with the body of literature that includes ‘stage’ theories of group development. Tuckman and Jensen (1977) presented one of the best known group development theories that comprise the five group stages of:  forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning.  These five categories represented the differing stages that groups process through in order to achieve group goals.  According to our findings, similar to the stage theory of group development, when utilizing international service learning as a teaching pedagogy, university students restructure and reinforce cultural perceptions through a series of stages that reflect their internal processing.  These five stages are discussed below. 

Confident Stage
The first stage represents a period of confidence in the students’ own cultural perceptions and knowledge.  These perceptions and knowledge are based on pervious experiences the student has had with a particular culture or multiple cultures. These perceptions and knowledge were arrived at through a variety of avenues: travel, readings, media, and personal interactions.  Many of the perceptions were developed through print and electronic media.  When asked to express what feelings, knowledge, and understandings (regardless of origin) that they had with regard to the Mexican culture, student responded in the following ways:

I have a good feel for the Mexican culture.  I have several students in my class who are from Mexico.  We talk a lot and discuss cultural issues. (MG16)

I try to keep up with the global community.  I read and listen to world news. (MG32)

I have been to Mexico last summer.  We spent time in Cancun.  It was a great experience. This will assist in my preparation for the experience in the orphanage. (MU 4)

As our students began to prepare for the service project at the Mexican orphanage, they began collecting their current perceptions and knowledge in order to apply and use this information for the upcoming experience. In a sense, they were using past knowledge to inform current practice.  They overwhelmingly expressed a comfort and confidence with their Mexican cultural understanding.

Caution Stage
Upon entering the orphanage service site and beginning work, it was evident through both student journal reflections and participant observation that students were cautious with regard to connecting to the culture of the service learning project.  This second stage in the process of using international service learning to inform cultural perceptions was characterized by a period of caution and uncertainty with regard to serving in the culture. Students began to question themselves and those around them with regard to their concerns.  These concerns can be summarized by the following questions: Who are the members of this culture? What are they like?  Will they like or accept me?  Will I be able to help the members of this culture?  Two students summarized their thoughts in the following ways:

What if I say the wrong thing?  I don’t understand this culture – why do they do the things they do? I don’t know how to speak the language.  (MG14)

Do I have the talent to help? Will I make a fool of myself? I feel unsure about many things.  What if I say the wrong thing or break some cultural norm?  It would be helpful if I could speak Spanish.

Maybe that should have been a requirement of this trip. (MG50)

I feel like a fool because I can’t carry on a conversation with the children at the orphanage. I love children and I don’t know how to connect.  I am not sure how I can help. (MG 26)

Interestingly, the confidence that students originally expressed with regard to their cultural knowledge, quickly dissipated once they began interacting with the culture.

Confrontation Stage
The third stage of using international service learning to inform students’ cultural perceptions was the confrontation stage. During this stage, students confronted their own cultural beliefs and attitudes within the context of the culture and the concept of service learning. It was during this stage that students began to express, through journal entries and interview conversations, that the perceptions they had brought with them to the service site needed restructuring In addition, this stage was evidenced by conflict with one or all of the following components of the service site:  people, procedures, beliefs, or attitudes. Student questions that represent this stage include: Why are we doing things this way?  Wouldn’t my way be better?  Students expressed their conflict, both internal and external, in the following statements:

I just kept thinking, I have a better way. Service learning sounds good in theory, but, in practice, I am not sure this works? Who can help me save this project? (MG18)

I don’t understand why the Madres focus so much energy on keeping the chapel clean when there are so many other needs.  (MG32)

________ is driving me crazy.  She wants to take over everything.  Her way is always better.  Why can’t she just do what she is told? (MG 37)

I think I could be of better use if I took a few of the girls and worked individually on math.  I want to be part of the testing group.  I think that is the more important piece. (MG26)

We were told not to set up in the front area.  _____ has good intentions but she is going to offend the Madres. (MG 31)

The above comments demonstrate the frustration that occurs during the confrontation stage.  It is during this stage that many projects fall apart.  Micropolitical interactions are evident and exist among and between participants and the service site. Strong conflict resolution skills are needed in order to keep the group on focus in order to preserve the goals of the project.

Contributing Stage
The fourth stage of using international service learning to inform students’ cultural perceptions is the contributing stage.  At this point in the project, students have learned to individually contribute to the project within the framework of the culture. This is a period of time where students, having found resolution to previous conflict, successfully work together to complete the service project – regardless of individual agendas. At this point in the process, students have found comfort in their service role and see it as an important piece of the larger project goal. The student question that best represents this stage is:  How can I best serve this project?  Students expressed this concept in the following comments:

I am flexible and adaptable to whatever needs to be accomplished. It isn’t my agenda but my service that is needed. (MG51)

I am determined to complete this project successfully because of an intrinsic care for those being served and an appreciation for the culture. 

I spent time today working with Juanita. I had a wonderful time playing board games.  Her laughter and smile warmed me in a way that is hard to describe.  I felt like I was finally making a contribution.  (MG 22).

Today, the entire orphanage schedule was changed based on a visit from a potential donor.  We had to cut our time, but, we did the best we could. It was disappointing and, honestly, aggravating. But, it’s true; you must serve according to the context of those you are serving.  I need to remember that – I must be flexible. (MG 20)

Today, the Madres felt like it was more important for the older girls to go into town than work with us.  I feel such a sense of urgency for these girls.  But, it wasn’t to be.  I looked for other ways to serve and ended up helping several girls make bracelets. It was a wonderful opportunity.  I helped them with their English and they taught me Spanish. (MG 27)   

Conclusion Stage
The fifth stage in the process of using international service learning to inform students’ cultural perceptions is a time characterized by feelings of moderate to extreme emotion created by physically and emotionally leaving the service site.   Accompanying this exit is a desire, by students, to continue to advocate for those being served.  Student comments can be summarized by the following questions:  How can I leave this place and not act upon what I now know?  What are my next steps? And, how can I continue to help? 

In addition, students state that, upon conclusion of their service experience, they experience a level of confusion with regard to their own cultural beliefs and perspectives.  Our findings conclude that the confusion is part of the process of restructuring cultural perceptions.  Students are aware that their previous perceptions cannot fully account for all they have seen, heard, and experienced.  They know that they have been changed, but, they are not sure how to describe it or how to quantify it.   They express this stage in the following ways:

I am not sure what my cultural beliefs actually are. . . I

I know I have been changed, I am just not sure of all the ways how.   I feel the change more than I understand it.  (MG 13)

I am interested in coming back and doing further work at the orphanage.  I am also interested in providing support financially.  (MG 9)

I visited with _________ about potential adoption of  _______.   I think I am ready to make this commitment. (MB 15)

This trip was so important to me.  I know realize that I knew nothing about orphanages or the Mexican culture. (MU 5)

In this stage, students express a desire to stay open to new cultural understandings (and to participant in more service learning and cultural experiences). They acknowledge an awareness that cultural understanding is a process, not an event. As educators, these students also express a desire to provide others the same opportunity to participate in international service learning projects.

Summary, Implications, Conclusions and Recommendations

In analyzing the five stages of cultural perceptual change, we did find some qualifiers.  First, individuals may get caught in any one stage.  For example, one student entered the caution stage and could never process forward.  As the group moved into the next stage, it left this student because of her inability to connect with the orphanage, the orphans, or her peers. The student had multiple emotional and physical needs and desired to have the group members fulfill these for her. Her need of constant care from others removed her focus from giving care to the service site. After repeated attempts, by the group members and leadership, to assist, the student emotionally withdrew and struggled with the realization that she needed to resolve her own personal issues before she would be able to assist others. 

Second, students do not move through the stages according to any particular timetable or with the same degree of intensity.  They also may progress through the stages multiple times.  For example, one student entered the confrontation stage and created conflict between the site and the university participants.  When the conflict was resolved, she found herself back at the connection stage in order to reestablish herself and reconnect with those she was serving.  She did finally arrive at the conclusion stage, much wiser and much slower than her peers.

Understanding the stages involved in utilizing international service learning to inform students’ cultural perceptions helps service learning leaders to more successfully assimilate students into the service learning environment. Furthermore, the findings should have indirect implications for other service learning programs, providing an understanding of how service learning can be utilized as a method of impacting students’ cultural perceptions. 

Credibility Criteria
Credibility is an umbrella term that includes criteria for judging the adequacy of a study's research process and the grounding of its findings.  As Lincoln and Guba (1985) suggest, the credibility criteria used during this research included:  prolonged engagement, persistent observation, and triangulation.

Prolonged engagement is the investment of sufficient time to achieve the purposes of learning the setting, testing for misinformation, and building trust.  In accordance with the criteria of prolonged engagement, we have developed a long-term relationship with our service learning site.  We have traveled to the orphanage for over three years (3 to 4 times a year).  We communicate with the Madres and the orphanage director several times a month through email or phone.

While prolonged engagement provided scope to the study, persistent observation provided depth.  Persistent observation has prevented premature closure of the research.  For example, we persistently pursue observations and journaling insights until saturation occurs or "until additional analysis no longer contributes to discovering anything new about a category" (Strauss, 1987, p. 21).

In addition triangulation has enhanced the credibility of the research.  Triangulation is the use of multiple sources of data (students, faculty, orphanage members, and orphanage administration) and multiple methods of data collection (interviews, journals, and participant observation) to support emerging research themes. 

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The curriculum and program exemplars showcased here have been contributed by educators in the field. Many were originally featured in Community Works Journal, or in Connecting Service-Learning to the Curriculum. We thank our contributing educators and their students for making their work available to us. Please contact us if you would like to share and 'exemplar" or reflection of your own. CWI EXEMPLARS: Exemplars Main l K-8 Exemplars l 9-12 Exemplars l Higher Ed Exemplars l Community Based Exemplars l Community Works Journal